WATER AND HEALTH - Table of Contents

WATER AND HEALTH

W. O. K. Grabow, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Water-Related Diseases

Public Health Impact of Water-Related Diseases

Control of Water-Related Diseases

Water Treatment Processes

Water Quality Control

Utilization of Water and Related Resources

Future Priorities

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER-RELATED DISEASE

R Stanwell-Smith, Royal Institute of Public Health, UK

Definitions and Systems for Classifying Water Related Disease

Water-related Infection

Non-infectious Disease Related to Water

Water Associated Disease

Implications for Water-related Surveillance

DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES THAT MEET TREATMENT AND INDICATOR SPECIFICATIONS

Pierre Payment, INRS - Institut Armand-Frappier, Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Canada.

Indicators of water quality and public health

Public health surveillance of waterborne disease

Epidemiologic studies of endemic waterborne disease

Etiology and causes of endemic water-attributable disease

Quantitative microbial risk assessment

Costs of undetected waterborne diseases

BURDEN OF DISEASE: CURRENT SITUATION AND TRENDS

Annette Prüss-Üstün, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Lorna Fewtrell, Centre for Research into Environment and Health, Crewe, UK

Discussion

Water-related Health Outcomes

Trends in Risk Factors

Trends in Health Outcomes

Burden of Disease

Regional Patterns

TRANSMISSION AND PREVENTION OF WATER-RELATED DISEASES

J.T. Macy and R.E. Quick, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA

Water-borne Diseases

Water-washed Diseases

Water-based Diseases

Water-related Insect Vector Diseases

Future Trends

GOALS OF WATER TREATMENT AND DISINFECTION: REDUCTION IN MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY

Pierre Payment, INRS- Institut Armand-Frappier, Institut National de la recherche scientifique, Canada

Piped Water networks and Waterborne Disease

The Diseases

The Microorganisms

Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Illnesses

Drinking Water Associated Morbidity and Mortality

Water Treatment: Control of Pathogens

Health Effects of Drinking Water: Observations and Causes

Management of Health Risk Through Water Treatment

Risk Analysis

Hazard Analysis and Control at Critical Points (HACCP)

Efficacy of Some Water Treatment Processes

Source Water and Treatment Selection

Disinfection

Granular Media Filtration

Membrane Filtration

Advanced Water Treatments

NEW AND EMERGING WATERBORNE INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Louis H. Nel and Wanda Markotter, Department of Microbiology and Plant pathology, University of Pretoria, South Africa

Infectious Diseases

New, Emerging, Re-emerging and Resurgent Infectious Diseases

Waterborne Infectious Diseases

Viral Agents

Bacterial Agents

Protozoal Agents

HEALTH IMPACT AND ECONOMIC COSTS OF POOR WATER AND SANITATION

Guy Hutton, Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank, USA

Health Impact

Economic Costs of Poor Water and Sanitation

Impact on the Health Sector

Impact on Households Afflicted with Disease

Other Impacts on Households of Improving Water and/or Sanitation Facilities

Impact on Industry, Agriculture and Private Enterprise

Global Estimates of Economic Costs of Poor Water and Sanitation

Global Estimates of Economic Benefits of Improved Water and Sanitation

Discussion

INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES IN THE DELIVERY OF WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES

Michael Rouse, Independent International Advisor and Distinguished Research Associate, University of Oxford, UK

Key Elements for Sustainable Water Services

Barriers to Sustainable Water Services

The Futile Public Private Argument

Some Developing Issues

ZOONOSES ACQUIRED THROUGH DRINKING WATER

R. M. Chalmers, UK Cryptosporidium Reference Unit, NPHS Microbiology Swansea, Singleton Hospital, Swansea, UK

General Issues of Zoonotic Disease Acquired through Drinking Water

Zoonotic Protozoa

Zoonotic Bacteria

Zoonotic Helminths

Potential Waterborne Zoonoses

EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES OF DISINFECTANTS AND DISINFECTANT BY-PRODUCTS

Gunther F. Craun, Gunther F. Craun & Associates Staunton, Virginia, USA

Rebecca L. Calderon, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA

Epidemiological Study Designs

Uncertainty of Risk Estimates

Cancer Risks

Adverse Reproductive and Developmental Outcomes

Cardiovascular Risks

Other Adverse Health Effects

Evaluating the Causality of Reported Associations

Discussion

HEALTH EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION OF DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES

John Fawell, Independent Consultant on Drinking Water and Environment, UK

Adriana D Hulsmann, Kiwa Water Research, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands

Contaminants Introduced in Drinking Water Treatment

Materials Used in Contact with Drinking Water

Water Safety Plans

New Sources of Drinking Water

Naturally Occurring Chemical Contaminants

Contaminants Arising From Agriculture

Contaminants from Industry and Human Habitation

UNCONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

P.E.Odendaal, Consultant, Pretoria, South Africa; Former Executive Director, South African Water Research Commission; Former President, International Water Association.

Water Reclamation

Factors Promoting Water Reclamation

Direct and Indirect Reuse

Water Reclamation Technology

Health Considerations in Water Reclamation

Applications of Water Reclamation

Agricultural Irrigation

Groundwater Recharge

Industrial Reuse

Environmental and Recreational Reuse

Non-potable Urban Reuse

Potable Reuse

Public Acceptance

Desalination of Seawater

Desalination Technology

Multistage Flash

Multi-effect Distillation

Vapor Compression Distillation

Reverse Osmosis

Electrodialysis

Freezing

Membrane Distillation

Quality of Product Water

Comparison of Distillation Processes and Reverse Osmosis

Dual Purpose Systems

POINT-OF-USE WATER TREATMENT FOR HOME AND TRAVEL

Joseph A. Cotruvo, Joseph Cotruvo & Associates LLC; Washington, D.C., USA, and WHO/NSF Collaborating Centre for Drinking Water Safety and Treatment, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Mark D. Sobsey, University of North Carolina, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Potential Solutions for Small Communities

Point-of-Use and Personal Water Treatment

Water Treatment Technologies for Home Applications

TREATMENT AND SAFE STORAGE OF WATER IN HOUSEHOLDS WITHOUT PIPED SUPPLIES OF TREATED WATER

Thomas F. Clasen, Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London WC1E 7HT, UK

Boiling

Chlorination

Solar Disinfection

Ceramic Filtration

Biosand (Intermittent Sand) Filters

Flocculation-Disinfection

Safe Storage

Cost and Affordability

Acceptability, Affordability and Sustainability

QUANTIFYING HEALTH RISKS IN WASTEWATER IRRIGATION

D.D. Mara, School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, UK

Quantitative Microbial Risk Analysis

Post-treatment Health-protection Control Measures

Helminth Eggs

Wastewater Treatment

IMPACTS OF EUTROPHICATION ON THE SAFETY OF DRINKING- AND RECREATIONAL WATER

Jennifer L. Davis and Glen Shaw, School of Public Health, Griffith University, Meadowbrook, Queensland, Australia

What is Eutrophication?

Effects of Eutrophication

Cyanobacteria

Health Implications of Eutrophication from Consumption and Recreational Exposure

Guideline Values, Policy and Legislation

The Future

GROUNDWATER AND PUBLIC HEALTH

Jack F. Schijven, Microbiological Laboratory for Health Protection, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, The Netherlands

Marylynn V. Yates, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA

Subsurface Behavior of Viruses

Factors Affecting Attachment of Viruses to Soil

Factors Affecting Virus Inactivation in the Subsurface

Advection and Dispersion of Viruses

Model Viruses

Virus Removal by Soil Passage

Removal of Bacteria and Protozoa by Soil Passage

Recommendations and Future Developments

AQUACULTURE AND MARICULTURE

Gail E. Greening, Communicable Disease Group, Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd, Porirua, New Zealand

Gillian D. Lewis, School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Introductory statement

Nature of the industry

Sources of Fecal Contamination Impacting Water Quality

Pathogens Contaminating Molluskan Shellfish and Growing Waters

Toxins and Chemicals

Control Strategies for Bivalve Mollusks

Future Prospects

RECREATION IN NATURAL WATER RESOURCES

R. M. McNinch, Center for Water Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

S. Singh, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

J. B. Rose, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Department of Crops and Soil Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA

Recreational Waters

Risks while Recreating

Guidelines and Standards for Monitoring

Pollution

Sources of Fecal Pollution

Reservoirs of Fecal Pollution and Toxins

Impacts and Events

Protection of Recreational Water Sites

Recreating Safely

DRY SANITATION TECHNOLOGIES - CAN THEY BE SUSTAINABLE?

JN Bhagwan, Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa

Challenges Posed in the Up-scaling of Onsite Dry Sanitation Systems

What Happens in the Pit?

Implications of Research Findings on Long Term Sustainability of VIPs

A concerning social phenomenon related to dry sanitation

CONSTRAINTS TO IMPROVING WATER AND SANITATION SERVICES

M. von Sperling, Senior Lecturer, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil

Introduction

Current Status of Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage in the World

Main Constraints and their Consequences

Towards the 21st Century

HUMAN HEALTH IN WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

Wim van der Hoek, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

The Burden of Water-related Diseases

Vector Borne Diseases Associated With Water Resources Development

Water Management for Vector Control

Health Impact Assessment

Water Resources Development and the Urban Environment

TOXIC CYANOBACTERIA

Jennifer L. Davis and Glen Shaw, School of Public Health, Griffith University, Meadowbrook, Queensland, Australia

What are Cyanobacteria?

Causes of Bloom

Toxins

Human Health Effects from Cyanobacteria

Environmental Effects of Toxic Cyanobacteria

Controls

The Future

MULTIPLE USES OF WATER AND HUMAN HEALTH

Wim van der Hoek, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Water for People, Food, and the Environment: a Common Resource

Human Health: a Cross Cutting Issue in Water Resources Development

Limitations to Conventional Approaches in the Domestic Water Supply Sector

Domestic Use of Irrigation Water

Newly Emerging Water Quality Problems

Saline Groundwater

Impact of Irrigation Management on Availability of Water for Domestic Use

Urban Water Supply and Agriculture

HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENT

L. Fewtrell, Centre for Research into Environment and Health, Aberystwyth University, Wales

G. R. Krieger, NewFields, Denver, Colorado, USA

J. Utzinger, Department of Public Health and Epidemiology, Swiss Tropical Institute, Basel, Switzerland

Definitions of Health and Health Impact Assessment

The Health Impact Assessment Process

HIA Examples

Discussion and Conclusions

SAFE DRINKING WATER IN THE TWENTY FIRST CENTURY: PRIORITIES FOR PUBLIC HEALTH

Timothy E Ford, University of New England, Maine, USA

Risk Assessment

The Pathogens

The Phenomenon of "New Disease"

Biofilms

Chemicals

Gene Arrays

Priorities in Public Health - Conclusion

WATER SAFETY PLANS FOR WATER TECHNOLOGIES

S. Godfrey, Water and Environmental Sanitation Specialist, UNICEF, India

S. Wate, Environmental Impact Risk Assessment Division, NEERI, India

P. Labhasetwar, NEERI, India

Application of Water Safety Plans

System Description

Hazard Assessment

Greywater Reuse Hazard Assessment

Matrix Development

Monitoring and Maintenance

HYGIENE PROMOTION

Hubley J., Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds, United Kingdom

Planning and implementation of hygiene promotion

Monitoring and evaluation of hygiene promotion

Overviews of hygiene promotion

Situation analysis

ECONOMICS AND FINANCING IN THE WATER SECTOR

Renato Parena, Chief Financial Officer, Gruppo Società Metropolitana Acque Torino Spa, Torino, Italy

Water Pricing

Impacts of Water Scarcity and Externalities Costs

Key Factors to Speed the Water Business Change

A Growing Industry Needs Comparing with Peers

MONITORING DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES

James K. Bartram, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland

Guy Howard, Department for International Development, Glasgow, UK

Scientific Basis

Principles and Approaches

Legislative and Regulatory Aspects and Implementation

MICROBIOLOGICAL WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT (CATCHMENT TO TAP)

J.E. Burgess, Research Manager: Water Treatment Technology, Water Research Commission, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa

B.I. Pletschke, Senior Lecturer and Head of Biochemistry, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Republic of South Africa

Microbiological Water Quality Indicators

Methods of Assessment

Water Quality Management

Future Trends and Perspectives

ROLE OF WATER REUSE IN MANAGEMENT OF URBAN WATER RESOURCES

J.C. Radcliffe, Honorary Research Fellow, CSIRO Australia, Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064

Uses for recycled water in the Urban Environment

Production of Recycled water

The Market

The Pricing Structure

An Appropriate Regulatory Environment

User and Community Acceptance

THE USES OF RECYCLED WATER

J.C. Radcliffe, Honorary Research Fellow, CSIRO Australia, Glen Osmond, South Australia

Reuse for Agriculture

Amenity Uses

Domestic Non Human Consumption Urban Use

Indirect Potable (Drinking Water) Use

Industrial Use

Environmental Use

The viability of recycled water use - Economics

Components of Successful Water Recycling

COMING TO TERMS WITH NATURE: WATER REUSE NEW PARADIGM TOWARDS INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

B. Jimenez-Cisneros, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico

Towards an integral definition of water reuse

How to overcome people’s fear of reused water

What we know about natural water reuse

Natural water reuse origin

Situation by type of water body

Control

HELMINTH OVA CONTROL IN WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE FOR AGRICULTURAL REUSE

B. E. Jimenez-Cisneros, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico

General Information

Helminth Ova in Wastewater and Sludge

Helminth Ova Characteristics

Helminth Ova Removal from Wastewater

Helminth Ova Inactivation in Sludge

Helminth Ova Inactivation in Fecal Sludge

Analytical Techniques